Asia in Focus, issue 7, 2019

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D history and philosophy (Qin, 2018; Zhang and Chang, 2016; Zhao, 2016; Yan, [2011] 2013). In this paper I discuss the potential for a Chinese School to challenge the Western-centric structure of IR both ideationally and from an institutional perspective by surveying more than 2,500 IR articles published from 2013-2017 in Chinese academic periodicals. In addition, I introduce a comparative angle as four periodicals are published in English and five in Chinese. The purpose is to investigate how much of the Chinese IR community is engaging in theory innovation, how much of this work promotes new theory based on Chinese resources, and how the new theories relate to existing IR and Western-centrism. The stratified structure of the IR academy Charges of Western-centrism in IR have taken different forms including institutional bias (Reingewertz and Lutwar, 2017), epistemological inflexibility (Brincat and Ling, 2014), cultural exceptionalism (Hobson, 2012), developmental determinism (Hoogvelt, 1997) and a lack of nonWestern agency (Kayaoglu, 2010). An illustration of the stratified institutional structure of the IR community is the hub-and-spokes system (Kristensen, 2015) in which core scholars, largely made up by an Anglo-American institutional elite, dominate. As Kristensen puts it, it is the privilege of core scholars to theorise, while periphery scholars do not speak back to the core, except perhaps in the sense of providing some raw empirical materials. (Kristensen, 2015, p. 214). Voices addressing these structural imbalances are either welcomed (Acharya, 2016) or met by resistance. Influential realist scholar John Mearsheimer portrays this exclusion in terms of scarcity: [T]here are limited opportunities in 2015 for scholars outside the United States as well inside it to develop wholly new theories. If this were 1945, the situation would be markedly different (Mearsheimer, 2016, p.2). There is a feeling in the more entrenched parts of the academy that IR is already overly fragmented (Wæver, 2013, p.336) 3 ISSUE 7 espite its name, the field of international relations has long been criticised for being parochial (Kristensen, 2015) and serving a Western outlook (Hobson, 2012) - it has even been called an American social science (Hoffman, 1977; Smith, 2000). Critics claim that the fields universalisation of the Western experience has served to downplay the role of imperialism and colonialism. The discipline assumes an idealised world structured around arbitrary dates such as 1648, the Treaty of Westphalia, and the supposed foundation of the discipline in 1919 (Carvalho et al. 2011). The earlier roots of the discipline in fields such as racial science and colonial administration are ignored, as is the fact that one of the disciplines most trusted periodicals, Foreign Affairs, was founded in 1911 as The Journal of Racial Development (Vitalis, 2000). With the emergence of critical, feminist and postcolonial IR studies, and the rise of developing non-Western countries such as the BRIC block, voices criticising subliminal Western-centrism in IR theory have grown more acute. The fact that these new powers seemed to arise at the same time as the economies of established powers were floundering has reignited bouts of Western defeatism (Ferguson, 2011; Goldberg, 2018). Arguably, none of the newcomers spurs more attention, fascination or concern as China. A growing interest in China and its global vision carried popular titles as What Does China Think (Leonard, 2008) and When China Rules the World (Jacques, 2009). However, in the Western IR communities, rising powers continue to be studied mainly as objects rather than subjects able to speak or theorise themselves (Kristensen, 2015). A call for a global IR by concerned IR scholars Acharya and Buzan (2007) reenergised the debate for indigenous theory inside China. The potential for a Chinese School of IR inspired by the English and Copenhagen Schools has been a hotly debated topic for decades since Liang Shoude called for an IR discipline with Chinese characteristics (Liang, 1994). Recently, Chinese scholars have moved into a new phase formulating theories founded on Chinese Joining the Club The place of a Chinese School in the global IR academy THØGER KERSTING CHRISTENSEN Right-wing nationalism or just plain fun? Japanese history in the game Kantai Collection and its audience interpretation Chinese Science Fiction Literature Can it do for China what K-Pop and Mang ISSUE 7 2019 Asia in Focus is a peer-reviewed journal published online twice a year by NIAS - Nordic Institute of Asian Studies. NIAS is a Nordic research and service institute focusing on Asias modern transformations. Asia in Focus was initiated by NIAS to provide Master students and PhD students Contents 02 Joining the Club The place of a Chinese School in the global IR academy THØGER KERSTING CHRISTENSEN 15 Right-wing nationalism or just plain fun? Japanese history in the game Kantai Collection and its audience interpretation VALTTERI VUORIKOSKI 24 Chinese Science Fiction Literature Joining the Club The place of a Chinese School in the global IR academy ASIA IN FOCUS THØGER KERSTING CHRISTENSEN Since the 1970s, international relations (IR) as a discipline has been called an American social science. However, despite persistent criticism, Western-centrism still permeates the d D history and philosophy (Qin, 2018; Zhang and Chang, 2016; Zhao, 2016; Yan, [2011] 2013). In this paper I discuss the potential for a Chinese School to challenge the Western-centric structure of IR both ideationally and from an institutional perspective by surveying more than 2,500 IR articles pub ASIA IN FOCUS Figure 1. The stratified structure of knowledge production in the international IR community. The Anglo-American core of the global IR works as central disseminator of knowledge to the peripheral cores, which as subjugated entities are only conditionally able to speak back mostly by p by interaction of the two opposite poles [...]. [T] he Confucian tradition understands them in an immanent way. They interact not as the thesis and antithesis, but as co-theses. (Qin, 2016, p.39) Qin Yaqing - The proponent Qin Yaqing, professor at China Foreign Affairs University, is strongly assoc ASIA IN FOCUS Yans objections to the term a Chinese School might be more a problem of phrasing than an unbridgeable gap between the two (Zhang, 2012). For this reason Yan has also become a central figure in the discussion of how Chinese culture might invigorate IR theory and guide Chinese foreign p ISSUE 7 Figure 2. Periodicals and number of articles included in the data survey. 7 ASIA IN FOCUS by Chinese institutions in different languages, I hope to highlight potential differing priorities in the internal debate among Chinese-speaking scholars and the Anglophone periodicals that are directed at international audiences. The purpose of bibliometric studies is to measure a di Figure 3. Orientation of content. in specialising in the US-dominated mainstream theory, making new theory is another way to be recognised by the Western gaze. As Qin Yaqing puts it, In reality, US IR theory has consistently held a leading position in the world, and US theoretical research over the ASIA IN FOCUS circles (emphasis added Qin, 2012, p.16). Coining a new school that is not explicitly critical towards existing theories and does not purport to threaten the privileged position of Western IR theory represents another way of carving out a spot within the stratified structure of the a from domestic political interests (Xie, 2011). It is influenced by the drive of younger scholars to gain recognition globally (Kristensen 2015, p.243) and by prominent scholars, who wish to carve out a spot in the stratified international IR structure. As a result, the sanctioned Chinese theories al ASIA IN FOCUS References Acharya, A. (2016). Advancing Global IR: Challenges, Contentions, and Contributions. International Studies Review, 18(1), 4-15. Acharya, A. (2014). Rethinking Power, Institutions and Ideas in World Politics: Whose IR? London: Routledge. Acharya, A. and Buzan, B. (2007). Why 13 ISSUE 7 Hui, V. T. (2012). Building Castles in the Sand: A Review of Ancient Chinese Thought, Modern Chinese Power. Chinese Journal of International Politics, 5(4), 425-449. Hui, V. T. (2004). Toward a Dynamic Theory of International Politics: Insights and Comparing Ancient China and Early Mode ASIA IN FOCUS Thought: Debates and Perspectives. Lexington, KY: The University Press of Kentucky. pp.67-90. Zhang Y. and Chang T. (Eds.). (2016). Constructing a Chinese School of International Relations: Ongoing Debates and Sociological Realities. London, UK: Routledge. Zhao T. (2016). tianxia de d Right-wing nationalism or just plain fun? Japanese history in the game Kantai Collection and its audience interpretation VALTTERI VUORIKOSKI Keywords: Media studies; fan fiction; digital games; Pacific War 15 ISSUE 7 The right-wingification of Japanese media has been a topic of discussion in Jap ASIA IN FOCUS T he question of whether the media in Japan including both news and fictional movies, television series and so forth is turning to the right (ukeika) has been a matter of debate in the country in recent years (e.g. Tsukada, 2017; Nishizawa, 2015). Non-academic commentators have com schools, mass media, [...] and the like (Gluck, 1993, p. 65). In this framework, there is no definite version of a national history, but rather an endless conversation, which is often contentious (Gluck, 1993, p. 65; Hashimoto, 2015, pp. 46). My analysis is primarily concerned with the conservative ASIA IN FOCUS in simple terms, to describe the reason why we see and talk about things the way we do today (Kendall & Wickham, 1999, pp. 2434). The aim of this study is not to judge historical rights or wrongs or define good and bad representations, but to investigate the historical origins of stat a realistic map of the Pacific as the games main screen. In the animated series, a final victory is to be achieved with the conquest of a specific island; the island is not named, but a map of Oahu with an enemy base where Pearl Harbor is located is shown. In other words, while the limited framing n ASIA IN FOCUS desserts in a restaurant. A few similar merrymaking episodes appear in the animated series as interludes between more action-oriented scenes, but not in the game versions. Their depiction does not correspond to pacifism where war is opposed, however. Rather, the characters exist in a real-world history is not used directly; instead, the authors construct something like Ōtsukas (2012) grand narratives of the story-world. Finally, the expansionist logic of the original works is conspicuously absent in the dōjinshi. When fan-authors indicate locations where action is taking place, Valtteri Vuorikoski completed his Master of Arts at the University of Helsinki, Department of World Cultures. His research interests include East Asian politics and media studies, particularly the audience interpretation of political messages in popular culture. ASIA IN FOCUS Email: valtteri@vuori References 23 ISSUE 7 Aquagaze. (2014, May 1). The Unfortunate Implications of Kantai Collection. Retrieved December 17, 2018, from The Glorio Blog: https://theglorioblog.com/2014/05/01/the-unfortunate-implications-of-kantai-collection/ Bogost, I. (2007). Persuasive Games. The Expressive Power of Chinese Science Fiction Literature Can it do for China what K-Pop and Manga do for Korea and Japan? ASIA IN FOCUS NICKLAS JUNKER There has been little success with exporting Chinese culture abroad, despite considerable efforts made by the Chinese government. Chinese science fiction (sci-fi) has a T to different political movements and the state sponsored visions of China since the late Qing era in the early twentieth century to the present day. However, Chinese sci-fi has not yet been discussed as a potentially powerful cultural agent, which can travel beyond its local national roots, to be ASIA IN FOCUS and governments, and ethnoscape (in the last section) refers to cultural differences in the sci-fi landscape rather than the movement of individuals. A landscape does not look the same from different angles and [t]he suffix -scape allows us to point to the fluid, irregular shapes of t United States Liu is considered, by media covering sci-fi and the sci-fi community, to be one of the most important figures in promoting Chinese scifi literature across the world (Kidd, 2016; Gong Haiying, 2018). His media presence greatly exceeds other Chinese sci-fi authors a search on Ken Liu on card. As for Chinese sci-fi, the former president of the United States, Barrack Obama, mentioned the trilogy by Liu Cixin as a definitive book of his presidency in an interview with The New York Times: 1984 and considers herself to be a part-time writer. She has written two full-length sci-fi novel Xia Jias stories have been published in all major scifi journals and magazines globally and some of her works have been translated into Japanese, Czech, Polish and Italian. Chinese sci-fi in the Global Community The scapes briefly explored in the previous section clearly show that there is an on-goi includes and unifies regional readers. The sense of We-ness gradually expands, including and unifying more and more readers and, in the end, will include and unify all readers of sci-fi on a global scale. Sci-fi as a genre makes this expansion of We-ness possible. The strong Chinese identity and the that reaches consumers globally from the bottom up. Future studies in this area could reveal how this transnational movement has increased the readers awareness of China and Chinese cultures. Nicklas Junker is a PhD student at the Department of Asian, Middle Eastern and Turkish Studies at the Unive ASIA IN FOCUS References Amy Q. (2014, November 10). In a Topsy-Turvy world, China Warms to Sci-Fi. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2014/11/11/books/liu-cixins-the-three-body-problem-is-published-in-us. html Appadurai, A. (1996). Modernity at large: cultural dimensions of Liu, K. (2018). About. Retrieved from https://kenliu.name/ Zong E. Y. (2018, May 12). Chinese Science Fiction Beyond Politics An Interview with Hao Jingfang, Author of Folding Beijing Translated by Emily Yu Zong. Mascara. Retrieved from http://mascarareview.com/chinesescience-fiction-beyond-politic Finding a New Narrative of Chinese Business Leadership by Giving Voice to Chinese Millennials ASIA IN FOCUS SUVI KURKI In this article, I study Chinese business leadership from the postheroic perspective, as I try to understand the culture that creates power dynamics in China. I challenge the dom W & Lee, 2008; Wang & Chee, 2011). An effort has been made over the past ten years to broaden the scope of Chinese leadership research, but the stereotype of the Confucian autocratic leader still prevails. Research has contrasted the differences between Western and Chinese leaders greatly and very ASIA IN FOCUS thinking, leadership practices should be changed according to circumstances (Chen & Lee, 2008; Wang & Chee, 2011) and as everything is under constant change, so must the leaders be able to adapt to different situations and play different roles. Mao Zedong was a great example of a lead constructed. The respondent either continues the story detailed in the introductory script or describes what has taken place prior to it. . The script is written so that it instructs the respondent as to how they should proceed with their response. This often means posing a clear question or giving ASIA IN FOCUS Table 1. Number of responses and Chinese characters in the responses to business or business management. 80 of the respondents were female and 31 were male. There were 29 story responses for script 1A; 26 stories for 1B; 26 stories for 2A; and 30 stories for 2B. The data gathering to ISSUE 7 Table 2. Number and percentage of stories where each power distance indicator was mentioned distance. It is also important to note that some Chinese Millennials might approach some problems with practices that belong to low power distance cultures, but then other problems with practices th ASIA IN FOCUS was it the Western democratic style either. What stood out was a logical and pragmatic approach to leadership issues. Based on the empirical data, Chinese Millennials would investigate the situation at hand properly before acting and they try to consider many aspects of a problem. Fur ISSUE 7 the sample population was very homogenous with regard to education. Peterson & Merunka (2014) note that a student sample can cause issues not only in terms of generalizability but also in terms of validity and reliability. This raises questions about the generalizability of the results on a ASIA IN FOCUS References Bathurst, R., & Edwards, M. (2011). Carving our future in a world of possibility: Exploring contemporary implications of the Māori-Pākehā relationship in Aotearoa/New Zealand. Tamara - Journal for Critical Organization Inquiry, 9(3-4), 6374. Bissessar, C. (2018). An applica 43 ISSUE 7 Frecklington, S. (2003). Effectively conducting business in China. In I. Alon (Ed.), Chinese culture, organizational behavior and international business management (pp. 245254). London Westport: Praeger. Fu, Y. & Kamenou, N. (2011). The impact of Chinese cultural values on human resourc ASIA IN FOCUS Raisch, S., & Birkinshaw, J. (2008). Organizational ambidexterity: Antecedents, outcomes, and moderators. Journal of management, 34(3), 375-409. Rajala, R. & Eskola, J. (1995). Päättöharjoittelussa onnistuminen ja epäonnistuminen: Selitysmalleja. In J. Jussila & R. Rajala (Eds.), Raja Book Review Taking Back Philosophy A Multicultural Manifesto. Van Norden, Bryan W. New York: Columbia University Press, 2017, 248 pp., ISBN: 978-0231184366 (hardcover) other than the canonical Western ones. If this cannot be achieved, they argued, we must end the double standard of Eurocentric phi ASIA IN FOCUS I share Jonardon Ganeris hesitation to call it racist (Ganeri, 2018), writing as I am from Europe where most universities here live up to the example of Van Nordens critique. It is clear that even a cursory look at the department websites of universities uncovers very few full-time em An asymmetry of ignorance in any form cannot form the basis of any interconnected world, especially in the realm of thought. Lisa Lindkvist Zhang is a Doctoral fellow at the Cluster Asia and Europe and Deptartment of Chinese Studies, Heidelberg University, and an Affiliated PhD student at NIAS - No ASIA IN FOCUS References Deussen, P. (1907). Outlines of Indian Philosophy. Berlin: Karl Curtius. Fuller, S. (2018). China as the Wests Other in World Philosophy. Journal of World Philosophies, 3(1), 157-164. Ganeri, J. (2018, August 20). Taking Philosophy Forward. Los Angeles Review of Books. Retr Asia in Focus A Nordic journal on Asia by early career researchers Aims and scope Submissions Submissions are warmly received all year round at www.tidsskrift.dk/asiainfocus Include in your submission confirmation that you have obtained the right to quote interviewees, publish pictures, maps and s ASIA IN FOCUS WWW. ASIAINFOCUS.DK 50