geographically widespread species being able to form fertile offspring, while other populations of the same species are not. Molecular techniques have contributed very significantly to solving many taxonomic problems, but they have not resulted in the emergence of a finite species concept. We have to accept that all levels of classification are subjective rather than objective, and it has always been that way. To cite Charles Darwin: I mean by species, those collections of individuals, which have commonly been so designated by naturalists (cited by M. Ereshefsky in [1]). At the generic level, splitting into many smaller genera is occurring rapidly at the moment. The genera containing a large number of species are presently being split into many smaller genera, and if this trend continues, these diverse genera will become a thing of the past. In some cases, some of the new genera are monophyletic rather than polyphyletic, and splitting becomes a matter of personal preference. In other cases separation into smaller genera can result into a better understanding of relationships of the species in this particular part of the old genus. All these problems obviously leave the work of the Task Team on Taxonomy difficult. One problem facing taxonomists is that results of taxonomic studies are used not only by academics themselves but also by non university people. With this in mind, the taxonomic systems suggested should not be overly academic; a pragmatic approach to taxonomy will help taxonomy to retain its usefulness in the general public. A pragmatic approach is currently not held in high esteem, as exemplified by the case of Cochlodinium. Cochlodinium polykrikoides (Fig. 3) is a very serious fish killer in South-East Asia, but C. polykrikoides is not the type species of Cochlodinium, and evidence has existed for some years that the type species, whose morphology had not been studied in detail, is so different genetically that the two species should not be included in the same genus. If the genus were to be split, the type species, Cochlodinium strangulatum, would then retain the name Cochlodinium, while unrelated species presently included in Cochlodinium, including C. polykrikoides, would need to be given one or more new generic names. Such a change is bound to cause considerable confusion in countries like South Korea, where the name Cochlodinium polykrikoides is well known by the general public. There are, however, ways to solve such problems; it is possible to change type species of a genus if this is deemed to be critically important. It is a solution which has to be discussed and accepted by the internal Nomenclature Committee, but it has happened before (e.g. the type species of Acacia). In the case of Cochlodinium polykrikoides it would have been pragmatic to suggest that C. polykrikoides should become the new type species for Cochlodinium, as this would reduce confusion. There is no guarantee that the suggestion would have been accepted by the Nomenclature Committee, however, but in the meantime a new generic name, Margalefidinium, has been suggested for Cochlodinium polykrikoides [2]. A common problem facing the Task Team has been that in some cases sequencing of single or a few ribosomal genes have proved insufficient to decide on the species level to be used. This was particularly clear in the case of the dinoflagellate Peridinium aciculiferum complex, which comprises P. aciculiferum, P. malmogiense (as Scrippsiella hangoei), P. Fig. 3. Margalefidinium polykrikoides (strain K-1292) baicalense, and P. euryceps. from Tsushima Island, Nagasaki, isolated by Mitsunori Iwataki in 2006 (micrographs from Gert Hansen) The ribosomal genes of the 14 four species are very similar [3], in fact Logares et al. [4] found no difference in ITS1, ITS2, 5.8S, SSU and partial LSU between P. aciculiferum and P. malmogiense. Yet these species are morphologically and ecologically different and it would be meaningless to merge them into a single species. Studies on the ribosomal genes therefore do not always provide the final answer. Will these taxonomic problems be easier to solve when more genes or whole genomes become available for use by the taxonomist? Some changes are bound to occur, and an example of such a change is the case of the protist group Heliozoa, suggested by Ernst Haeckel in the late 1800s. The group was found to be polyphyletic based on sequencing of the SSU gene [5], and Haeckels old name Radiolaria was therefore in for modification. However, subsequent studies of transcribed genes (single cell transcriptomics) resulted in the opposite result, Haeckel was now right once more; the group was again monophyletic [6]. Taxonomy is going through a difficult time at the moment. The Danish phycologist Tyge Christensen, whose name is associated with the Tyge Christensen Prize awarded annually by the International Phycological Society, wanted genera to be identifiable with the use of a hand lens or at least in a light microscope. If the present trend continues, most unicellular species and genera will eventually become identifiable only by using molecular sequencing. It will be a challenge to handle this situation in a pragmatic way. References 1. Boenigk J et al 2012. Eur J Protistol 48: 96102 2. Gómez F et al 2017. Harmful Algae 63: 32-44 3. Annenkova NV et al 2015. ISME J 9(8):1821-34 4. Logares R et al 2007. Microb Ecol 53: 549-561 5. Polet S et al 2004. Protist 155: 53-63 6. Krabberød AK et al 2017. Mol Biol Evol 34: 1557-1573 Author Øjvind Moestrup, Chair of IPHAB Task Team on Taxonomy, Department of Biology, Marine Biological Section, University of Copenhagen, Denmark Email: moestrup@bio.ku.dk HARMFUL ALGAE NEWS NO. 59 / 2018 Harmful Algae News An IOC Newsletter on Toxic Algae and Algal Blooms No. 59 - February 2018 www.ioc-unesco.org/hab Content 25 years of HAN and IPHAB...... 1 25 YEARS Harmful Algae News was first published in early 1992 in response to requests from the participants at a number of IOC meetings and pacted by harmful algal events. Since Harmful Algae News turned 20 years old in 2012, it has been a web based e-newsletter which meant longer issues were possible and back issues easily accessible. We are currently working on a searchable index for all Harmful Algae News issues. The start of Harmful Intergovernmental Panel on Harmful Algal Blooms also turned 25! During 1992, the same Year as the IOC published the first issue of Harmful Algal News, it also established an Intergovernmental Panel on Harmful Algal Blooms (IPHAB) which has met every second year since it was formed. The Panel is com A retrospective look at the early days of HAB cyst research, and a look to the future On this occasion of the 25th anniversary of the publication of Harmful Algae News, several of us were asked to look backwards in time to some of the earlier days of HAB science. One area of study that has been a ma dormant stages and that these stages might be associated with certain bottom sediments. This then brings up the question, if benthic resting stages of certain dinoflagellates actually seed coastal red tides, are there localized areas of accumulation, or what we could call seedbeds?..........The poss day, we still do not know if there are other factors at work perhaps a density-dependent or quorum-sensing type of response, or even a response to the presence of grazers or parasites. Exploration of this response has long been limited by the constraints associated with laboratory cultures, but now approach did not stand up to data at my study locations. I raise this issue in this narrative because I want to correct what I feel are unjustified recommendations that may prevent those working on cysts from obtaining the type of biological data that can advance our understanding of certain types o number of cysts in subsurface layers unable to germinate or emerge, presumably due to lack of oxygen or to the tortuous pathway posed by sediment grains and detritus. Many might think that major storms and waves can erode significant layers of sediment and transport cysts long distances, but here ag How do algal blooms kill finfish and how can we mitigate their impacts? Algal blooms, water discolorations and their association with fish kills have been recorded since historic times, such as the description in the Bible (1000 years BC) all the waters that were in the river were turned to blood. A Table. 1. Economic losses from algal blooms for finfish aquaculture in different parts of the world HAB species Chattonella Heterosigma Cochlodinium polykrikoides Heterosigma Chaetoceros Heterosigma Karenia digitata Karenia mikimotoi Country Financial Losses Japan Korea, China Canada British Col emergency harvest operations. To prevent the buildup of histamines, fish should be kept alive as long as possible during harvesting. This can be achieved by diluting algal concentrations via airlift upwelling, or by targeted in-pen emergency application of clays [23] that mop up ichthyotoxins at cla As part of the 25th anniversary issue of Harmful Algal News I am providing an overview of the IOC-UNESCO Taxonomic Reference List of Harmful Algae (www. marinespecies.org/hab/) and will highlight some of the problems which have faced or are facing the Intergovernmental Panel on Harmful Algal Blooms Dinophyceae the authors intended the new genus to be described according to the botanical nomenclature. The lack of a Latin diagnosis therefore made it invalid. The confusion has actually still not been resolved, and the problem needs to be discussed and decided upon by the International Nomenclatur geographically widespread species being able to form fertile offspring, while other populations of the same species are not. Molecular techniques have contributed very significantly to solving many taxonomic problems, but they have not resulted in the emergence of a finite species concept. We have t Algal toxin discovery, management and regulation over the last 25 years Algal toxins in the dark ages (pre-1992) From a historic perspective, knowledge about algal toxins can be divided into truly prehistoric occurrences such as known from paleontological studies [1-2] and more recent historic recor lar rapid increase in known analogues has been observed for the azaspiracid (AZA) group, with the first analogue described in 1998 [64] and a review in 2014 reporting 30 analogues [65]. Only three years later, over 50 analogues are known for this group, including novel phosphate derivatives [66-71]. Butterflies in Brazil Abstracts are not always reliable guides to authors intentions. They are not expected to reveal a great deal about the evidence to be deployed in support of the science, evidence that may not even exist before deadlines for writing abstracts! Nevertheless, as examples of a mino on a decadal time scale, and identified palaeoclimatic oscillations are not necessarily a useful guide to its interpretation. An obvious obstacle to detecting climate signals in HAB data is posed by anthropogenic eutrophication. Another obstacle is the fact that phytoplankton respond directly to the trends, Karenia brevis might appear more often in the South Atlantic Bight of the US and Gymnodinium catenatum bloom more often in northwestern Iberian waters. There was also a warning by Barrie Dale germane to such speculations, that large scale climate models cannot predict local changes. Little m Red tides in Kamchatka coastal waters (Bering Sea, Russia) are a barrier for the salmon fishery and Pacific salmon Fig. 1. Map of Olyutorskiy Bay (Kamchatka, Bering Sea) where a red tide, reported by fishermen, occurred in July 2017. The stars denote fishery sites: red, affected by the bloom; green Fig. 2. Red tide in Olyutorskiy Bay on 15th July 2017 grounds of the Olyutorskiy Bay river basin performed during the second half of August showed an atypical distribution in the rivers. Maximal escapes were recorded in river basins located in the western and eastern parts of the Olyutorskiy Bay ar First report of Gambierdiscus in the Western Mediterranean Sea (Balearic Islands) Gambierdiscus (Dinophyceae) species are benthic dinoflagellates living in marine littoral zones of circumtropical areas and have recently been described in temperate waters [1]. Some species are producers of potent neu the SEASENSING (BIO2014-56024C2-2-R) project and the CERCA Programme/Generalitat de Catalunya. A. Tudó and A. Toldrà acknowledge IRTAURV-Banco Santander for their respective PhD grants (2016 PMF-PIPF-74 and 2015PMF-PIPF-67). The authors are grateful to Vanessa Castan and José Luis Costa for sampling Comparison by light microscopy and qPCR of potentially ichthyotoxic microalgae in Danish on-shore lagoons producing European flounder (Platichthys flesus): Pros and cons of microscopical and molecular methods Fig. 1. Lagoon used for production of European flounder at Fishlab, Denmark. Evaluation o Fig. 2. Comparison of phytoplankton species identification and cell densities (cells L-1) by qPCR (A and C) and light microscopy (target species and groups which potentially could comprise ichthyotoxic organisms) (B and D) in lagoon 1 (A and B) and lagoon 6 (C and D), respectively. The right Y-axis present in a sample then qPCR would miss those probably due to lack of a developed assay. However, LM does require high levels of taxonomic skills and the precision in identification is only as accurate as the taxonomist allows. Different taxonomists trained in different ways using different identif As qPCR measures genetic material rather than viable cells an over estimation of cell numbers can occur due to the inclusion of dead or dying cells. Problems may also occur when targeting multiple copy genes where the organism carries different numbers of the target depending on nutritional status, The Cawthron Institute Culture Collection of Micro-algae (CICCM) The CICCM is designated as a nationally significant database by the New Zealand government and so receives partial funding for its continued existence. Isolates from 13 classes of micro-algae are maintained either as live cultures or c The XVIII International Conference on Harmful Algae is approaching! It is time for nominations for achievement awards (Yasumoto Life Time and Patrick Gentien Young Scientist), registration to the conference as a student if you wish to participate in the Maureen Keller Award competition and fundraisi Forthcoming Events First announcement of the 11th International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria (ICTC) We are pleased to disseminate the first announcement of the 11th International Conference on Toxic Cyanobacteria (ICTC) that will be held in Krakow, Poland from May 5 10, 2019. The ICTC is a per International Coordination of Research on Harmful Algal Blooms From GEOHAB to GlobalHAB International cooperation is fundamental to advance understanding of HAB dynamics and to improve our ability to predict them. Fostering this international cooperation was the mission of GEOHAB (Global Ecology and 18th International Conference on Harmful Algae www.icha2018.com IMPORTANT DEADLINES Abstract submission deadline: 15 April 2018 Early bird registration: 15 July 2018 Get the 17 ICHA Proceedings at www.issha.org Eds-in-chief Beatriz Reguera, IEO, Vigo, Spain Eilen Bresnan, MARLAB, Scotland, UK Regi